The principle of holistic human development has been historically and philosophically embedded in the delivery of park and recreation services (2).

To early philosophers, making moral and healthy choices in free time was leisure (8). The Industrial Revolution of the mid-1800s created a need to reform the social milieu that included poor sanitation, urbanization, child labor, lack of open spaces, and other detriments to promoting physical, social, and psychological health. Early efforts to holistically develop bodies, minds, and spirits through supervised play areas, open spaces, camping, and programs of physical culture served as the historical underpinnings for the leisure service delivery system.

Park and recreation professionals "have always worked to achieve the goal of helping people achieve moral and healthy free-time choices (8)."

During the last few decades, however, the basis for operating many public park and recreation agencies has been transformed by continued public demands to justify the economic and social benefits of recreation and park programs. Marketing, promoting community relations, increasing revenues, establishing cooperative agreements, enhancing program offerings, and managing human and natural resources have been the contemporary practices to attract much of the professional attention in the delivery of services.

Against a backdrop of these administrative challenges and a changing society, park and recreation professionals must reclaim their historical roots—the total wellness view—if the lives of those living in the 21st century are to be enhanced.

We began the current century with a sense of uncertainty about our nation's economy, social structures, educational practices, families, young people, and health. The future connotes change guided by objectives designed to enhance the personal well-being of a diverse people. The challenges of the 21st century can be addressed by a profession marked by its historical abilities to adapt to change. Facing the resource and programmatic needs of the decades to come is a goal that can partially be met by considering a changing dynamic of health and programming alternatives that focus on physical, social, and psychological health.

Changing View of Health

The modern, scientific approach to illness and disease suggests that there are pathological conditions caused by outside agents that invade the body causing imbalances in the body's physiological systems resulting in sickness (3). Over the past decade, however, the concepts of health and wellness have been developed to describe the human condition holistically rather than simply as the absence of "sickness" (13).

Wellness involves a delicate balance between one's physical, emotional, spiritual, intellectual, and social health (4). Wellness has also been described as an interconnected system of life forces and tasks that include one's spirituality, self-regulation, love, work, and friendship (13). When in dynamic and positive interaction with family, community, education, government, religion, and business, these relationships create a healthy person. In this context a healthy person is one who believes in the dignity of others, is optimistic, has a sense of purpose, has a sense of self-control, is spontaneous, becomes intellectually stimulated, believes in fitness, is creative, devel-

36 • Illinois Parks & Recreation • January/February 1996

ops social relationships, and, among other characteristics, is trusting and loving.

Park and recreation professionals would better be able to articulate their mission were they to adopt a more inclusive view of health:

"Our state of health is largely determined by other factors than medical treatment. Over 80 percent of the factors which determine our state of health have to do with our environment, our relationships with friends and enemies, the quality of our education, our status in the community, and how we think about ourselves....Our state of health is largely determined by how we live our everyday lives, our behaviors, emotions, and sometimes, luck" (4).

If our personal living practices and the state of our environment have more to do with our state of health than the medical profession, then it is assumed that individual activities undertaken in a social milieu that promotes health and wellness through its varied programs would be a means to improving everyone's health.

Themes of Social Change As a nation our social groups are looking different and our conventional values and behavior norms are being challenged as we become older, more diverse, and more ethnic while living in nontraditional families. Our culture, which is partly defined by the types and extent of our recreation and leisure experiences, is being transformed by changing demographics (1); By the year 2000, 35 percent of school age children will be of non-Anglo-Saxon heritage; the White non-Latino population is growing more slowly and is expected to have decreased from 73 percent in 1985 to 66 percent by the year 2000. By the year 2000, the under age-five population will have declined to 16.9 million and is expected to stay below 17 million for the next 60 years. By the year 2000, 48 percent of African-American households will be headed by females; childbirths to unmarried White and Latinos are increasing. Twenty-five percent of all households are single adult households. By 2000, 20 percent of the population will be over the age of 65; by 2025, people over 65 will outnumber teenagers two to one; by 2030, 25 percent will be 65 years old or older. Twenty percent of the population will have a disability (9). In juxtaposition to these changing demographics, the health promotion objectives for the next decade offer challenges to park and recreation professionals that cannot be overlooked (Healthy People 2000, 1990): Reduce coronary heart disease deaths to no more than 100 per 100,000 people. Reduce overweight to a prevalence of no more than 20 percent among people age 20 and older and no more than 15 percent among adolescents age 12 through 19. Increase to at least 30 percent in proportion of people age 6 and older who engage regularly, preferably daily, in light to moderate physical activity for at least 30 minutes per day. Increase to at least 40 percent the proportion of people age 6 and older who regularly perform physical activities that enhance and maintain muscular strength, muscular endurance, and flexibility. Reduce to no more than 15 percent the proportion of all people aged 6 and older who engage in no leisure-time physical activity. Increase to at least 50 percent the proportion of overweight people age 12 and older in regular physical activity. Increase community availability and accessibility of physical activity and fitness facilities: 1986 Baseline 2000 Target Hiking, biking, fitness trail miles 1 per 71,000 people 1 per 10,000 people Public swimming pools 1 per 53,000 people 1 per 25,000 people Acres of park and recreation open space 1.8 per 1,000 people 4 per 1,000 people Increase to at least 50 percent the number of professionals who routinely assess and counsel participants regarding the frequency, type, and intensity of a persons's physical activity practices. Reduce the proportion of young people, between the ages of 12 to 17, who have used alcohol to 12.6 percent, those who have used marijuana to 3.2 percent, and cocaine to 0.6 percent. Reduce to less that 35 percent the proportion of people age 18 and older who experienced adverse health effects from stress within the past year. Increase to at least 20 percent the proportion of people, including those with disabilities, age 18 and older who seek help in coping with personal and emotional problems.

Park and Recreation as Health and Wellness Agents

At a general level, the profession should continue and extend multi-level programming approaches. If our constituencies are to receive full benefits of our services then governmental, organizational, and individual partnerships must be designed.

Our social systems are moving beyond the notion that one system can address all needs. Developing "partnerships of ser-

Illinois Parks & Recreation • January/February 1996 • 37

vices" among human-service agencies whose policies, regulations, and programs reflect healthful practices should be encouraged. Such multifaceted programs would foster greater collaboration between public, quasi-public, and private agencies. As the catalyst for such cooperative efforts, public park and recreation programs together with voluntary agencies, youth-serving programs, public housing services, nutrition sites, hospitals, residential facilities, community mental health services, and other social service programs could share their resources to improve the vitality of the residents and the community.

Participation in regular physical activity depends upon a greater availability of geographically, architecturally, and socially accessible areas and facilities that are attractive and planned to encourage involvement in rigorous activity. Well designed and maintained trails, gymnasiums, tennis courts, basketball courts, golf courses, playing fields, swimming pools, and other areas reflect an agency's interest in fostering engagement in physical activity.

Parks and open spaces can serve as "safe havens" for many whose lives become stressful. Well-supervised and maintained parks, in addition to being places for quiet respite, offer opportunities for personal reflection, fantasy, and adventure. Parks, that are safe and encourage interpersonal interaction, can become physical resources where everyone can enjoy a sense of freedom and control (7).

Health care providers are often viewed as respected sources of information about illness prevention and health promotion. Specialists who assess, instruct, and counsel in exercise, time management, nutrition, relaxation, social skill development, and leisure education can become important personnel resources for a park and recreation department. Working with their colleagues in recreation, certified exercise physiologists, therapeutic recreation specialists, and other human service specialists can serve as advocates, program designers, and instructors for health enhancement programs. These specialists can further extend their influence by serving as consultants, and as visible role models, who can work with other agencies in efforts to promote healthful living practices.

Researchers continue to suggest that participants who have peak experiences, those exceedingly joyful moments resulting from total immersion in a recreation experience (6), indicate that such results are directly related to recreation with a family member (5). With the evident changes in family structures and demands, successful and healthy family living rests with the value a community park and recreation department places on families. Rather than assuming family members know how to play together, departmental programming efforts should be extended to include child-parent play programs where single parents can learn about the role of play in the physical, cognitive, and social development of their young child. Programs should include opportunities where playful parent-child interactions are supported.

Through such efforts parents can be encouraged to be participants and teachers, rather than spectators. Since many parents of children with disabilities focus much of their attention on ensuring the safety of their child, such groups should be extended to them too. To accommodate the various working schedules of single parents, park and recreation departments must consider nontraditional schedules by offering programs later, or earlier, in the day. Problem-oriented support groups for parents and families can be offered in the nonthreatening environments of the park and recreation department (5).

Park and recreation departments can take a leadership role in providing activities focused on conflict resolution. While such a goal is often addressed in many traditional programs such as youth sports, recreation experiences which include challenge and adventure should also be implemented. They then become healthful alternatives to drug use that enable young people to resolve intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts appropriately and realistically.

Research findings indicate that physical activity programs have a significant positive effect on health-related behaviors of children and youth that extend into adulthood (10). Researchers noted that older people who exercise regularly are able to reduce their risks for falls (11) and regular physical activity may help prevent non-insulin-dependent diabetes (12). Park and recreation departments can institute comprehensive physical activity programs for everyone but especially for children, young people, and others at risk for poor physical health (e.g. childhood obesity, orthopedic disabilities, etc.). Programs of high quality and guided by educational goals should help extend the objectives of school-based physical education programs.

Park and recreation services have always served well in creating vibrant communities. In recognition of the demographic and social changes taking place in our communities, park and recreation departments can become firmly established illness prevention and health promotion agencies if their programs begin to reflect goals and opportunities that contribute to building healthy lifestyles.

DeanA. Zoerink, Ph.D., CTRS is associate professor in the Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Administration, Western Illinois University.

References

(1) Clark, N. M. 1994. "Health Educators and the Future: Lead, Follow, or Get Out of the Way." Journal of Health Education, 25:136-141.

(2) Edginton, C. R., Compton, D. M. & Hanson. C. J. 1980. Recreation and Leisure Programming: A Guide for the Professional. Philadelphia: Saunders.

(3) Godbey, G. 1990. Leisure in Your Life: An Exploration. 3rd ed. State College, PA: Venture.

(4) Godbey, G. 1991. "Redefining Public Parks and Recreation." Parks and Recreation, 26:56-61, 74.

38 • Illinois Parks Recreation • January/February 1996

(5) McCormick, S. 1991. "The Changing American Family at Play." Parks and Recreation, 26:44-49.

(6) Privette, G. 1983. "Peak Experience, Peak Performance, and Row: A Comparative Analysis of Positive Human Experiences." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 45:1361-1368.

(7) Riggins, R. D. 1991. "Why Are Parks Important?" Parks and Recreation. 26:28-35.

(8) Russell, R. V. 1996. Pastimes: The Context of Contemporary Leisure. Dubuque, IA: Brown and Benchmark.

(9) Shapiro, J. P. 1993. No Pity: People with Disabilities Forging a New Civil Rights Movement. New York: Times Books.

(10) U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1990. Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Public Health Service.

(11) "Wellness Facts." University of California at Berkeley Wellness Letter, May, 1995.

(12) "Wellness Facts. University of California at Berkeley Wellness Letter. August, 1995.

(13) Witmer. J. M. & Sweeney, T. J. 1992. "A Holistic Model for Wellness and Prevention Over the Life Span. Journal of Counseling and Development, 71: 140-148.

Illinois Parks & Recreation • January/February 1996 • 39