PLAYGROUND DESIGN:

Design Qualities Which Help To Meet The Play Needs Of Children

By Ann Blocher Hill

Play is the work of children. Through play, children not only develop their physical capabilities but also develop cooperative social behavior, simulate "pretend" adult situations in which they may eventually participate as adults, and enhance intellectual skills through imagination and trial and error experimentation.

Where a child plays is only one factor of many in determining whether a child will have the best play experiences, but play areas — playgrounds — which offer children the most opportunities for all three types of play — physical, social and intellectual — are certainly more desirable than those which focus on just one. For parents, park planners and play area designers, it is important to be able to recognize the ways children play and then to provide as many opportunities for play as possible.

In this brief article, the three types of play will be discussed with some guidelines for evaluating existing play areas and redesigning and/or designing new ones to encourage all three.

Because early childhood is the time of most rapid development, and because most public play areas are intended for these younger children, this article will refer to play areas for the 2-year to 8-year-old. Of course younger children and older children both use play areas and many of the guidelines can be applied to play areas for these groups as well.

Further, we will refer to designated public play areas in parks, schools, day care centers, apartment complexes and neighborhoods rather than back yard play, or vacant lot play, although these other places can certainly provide similar experiences.

Most existing playgrounds encourage children to do exactly what the theorists of 100 years ago thought they should do — let off steam.

PLANNING THE PLAYGROUND

Most existing playgrounds encourage children to do exactly what the theorists of 100 years ago thought they should do — let off steam. Slides, swings, climbing frames and merry-go-rounds, whether they are metal, fiberglass or wooden, in the form of rocket ships or covered wagons, are intended primarily to exercise the large muscles of growing children; that is, use up excess energy. Parents and others wishing to expand this narrow definition of play must first learn to recognize these three types of play:

1. Physical play is the most easily recognized and the most often en-

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couraged. Most people can recognize that a child swinging, climbing, or sliding is in fact playing and getting the exercise necessary for fast growing muscles.

2. Intellectual play is not always so obvious. It isn't always possible to see that a quiet child is exercising imagination. A more observable type of intellectual play is manipulation. A child building a sand castle, planting a twig to see if it will grow, or making up a song is in some small way changing, manipulating the world around him or her and seeing what happens. This manipulation is not only a factor in intellectual growth, it also, frequently, involves use of smaller muscles and improves dexterity.

3. Social play involves not only organized games with other children, but also role-playing ("you be the pilot, I'll be the co-pilot and Jeff can be the stew"), cooperative play (e.g. teeter-totters which require two or more) and also just talking. Even watching other children play is an important part of a child's social development.

QUALITIES OF PLAY AREAS

There are elements or qualities which parents and others can look for and design into children's play areas which will encourage intellectual and social play as well as physical play. These are qualities which are frequently overlooked or ignored in play area design, but should be considered in conjunction with the usual playground requirements.

1. Manipulability. Manipulability means ways kids can change the environment around them. Everytime a child changes the environment, he or she is also exercising imagination in the manner of change. Like a good natural scientist, that child is experimenting and reaching conclusions.

The most common manipulable is sand. Sand can be made not only into castles; it can also be formed into dams, bridges, lake basins, houses, gardens, and animals. It has texture, color and grain to be discovered. It can be dribbled, shoveled, raked, and poured. But sand without water is almost impossible to build with. So a water source is essential if sand is to be considered a manipulable. Water itself is also a manipulable. It can be squirted, splashed, floated on, poured, dammed, etc. There are actually water playgrounds with squirters, sprayers, falls and pools. But even as small a source as a drinking fountain if designed and placed properly can be a play element.

A frequently overlooked manipulable is snow. Snow can be used for building, throwing, forming, sliding, sweeping. A protected sunny play area in winter can provide wonderful snow play, particularly in urban areas where children don't all have backyards or other open spaces. If a play area also has an ice pond in winter, it will be irresistable for skating and sliding.

Living things — seeds, leaves, bugs, flowers, pinecones — are also manipulables. Children make whistles out of grass, houses out of leaves, faces with pinecones, boats from flowers, noses out of maple leaves. Children put obstacles in front of crawling bugs to see if they'll go over or around them. Children watch ants or bees to see what all the frantic activity means.

The most common manipulable is sand.

Evaluators can see whether playground plantings have been chosen to provide interesting seeds, flowers, berries, or leaves, and to attract interesting birds and insects. One mother recently told how crabapple trees provided a manipulable in the playground used by her 14-month-old daughter. Her daughter and a friend spent a long time collecting fallen crabapples and pushing them down a drainage grate. They not only had to sort the crabapples to the sizes of the grate openings, but they also listened carefully to the splashes, discovering the relationship of time and distance of fall. All of these learning experiences were possible in this particular playground because of trees that unaware adults might consider too messy to be on or near a playground.

The ultimate in manipulability is an adventure playground. This is also called a "junk" playground and is most popular in Great Britain. This playground is simply an open space with a high fence around it, a tool shed and a playleader. Donated materials such as scrap lumber, old tires, scrap metal, rope and similar items are then put inside the fence and children are invited to make anything they want. The playleader, who in this country is usually a college student, is present as advisor, building instructor, and procurer of materials. The kids build structures, plant gardens, play as they wish.

Surveys have shown that this is the most often used type of playground, most popular among children. Unfortunately adventure playgrounds have not been quite as popular with communities in this country for several reasons:

—Playleaders' salaries are not usually included in park budgets.

—Adventure playgrounds look "messy".

—Parents and park districts worry about safety and insurance. (Actually the presence of a playleader makes an adventure playground safer than an ordinary unsupervised playground, but insurance companies are wary nonetheless.) 2. Ambiguity. The second quality to look for in a play area is ambiguity; play equipment which allows children to imagine anything they want rather than limiting them by being too specific. The quality of ambiguity is easier to explain by explaining what it isn't.

Ronald McDonald play areas are a wonderful example of playgrounds which lack ambiguity. They do admirably what they are supposed to do — attract children with bright colors and recognized characters, and hold their attention for about 20-30 minutes. Children would have a hard time sustaining imaginative play at a Ronald McDonald playground longer than that because all the imagining is already done for them in plastic. There is no ambiguity.

Another negative example is playground equipment which looks like a specific object, a rocket ship, a sailboat or a fire truck. This is much more limiting than another manufac-

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turer's equipment which simply has a wheel mounted on a post which could steer anything the child wishes to imagine.

Ambiguity allows a child freedom to imagine whatever he or she will without limiting creativity by being too specific.

3. Enclosure and Shelter. The third quality of a good play area is that it have areas of enclosure and a feeling of shelter. Research has shown that children will feel freer to explore and imagine if they feel personally safe while playing. And further, that children feel safest in small enclosed spaces. If you doubt this try putting a child-sized cardboard box out for a child to play with. Almost always the child will play in the box, rather than on or around the box.

Also, research has shown that a feeling of enclosure around a group of children will make them talk to each other more. The most natural sized group for young children is 2-4, so the enclosed space can be very small indeed to encourage social play.

To a small child, enclosure may well be a barrier only 24"-30" high (table height). A child sitting, crawling or kneeling will still feel enclosed, while a standing child can see over to parents or friends nearby.

Another aspect of enclosure is protection from the possible danger and interruption of play from large dogs running freely through or older children dashing through to retrieve a ball. A play area for young children should have a barrier (fence, vegetation or landform) which will protect the entire play area from unwanted intrusions.

4. Observation Points. One of the ways children learn is by imitation. We all learned language this way. By observing and then imitating, joining in — children practice adult behavior and social behavior with other children.

This imitating of adult roles is very easy to see in young animals. Puppies wrestle as they may one day fight for mating privileges. Kittens pounce on string, butterflies and balls, as they may one day have to catch mice, rabbits and moles to feed themselves. Children do the same imitating and trying out of adult behaviors in more or less obvious ways.

Children thus need time to observe. In a playground this means that there should be some places just big enough for one or two children that are:

—out of the way of active play.

—overlooking active play.

If possible, when a playground is in a larger park, these observation points should also provide a view of adult games — ballfields, tennis courts, park benches, fountains, etc.

The wooden equipment so many playgrounds are installing seem to offer these observation points in the platforms high above the ground. Unfortunately, any child wanting to sit quietly on one of these platforms would probably be trampled since the platforms are usually only stopping places that lead from one activity to another, rather than being out of the way of active play.

5. Adult-Child Relationships. Children, especially younger children, feel much more like exploring and imagining if trusted adults are nearby to protect them. Even older children will stay longer at a play area where an adult is present. You've probably passed deserted playgrounds during the day that in the cool of the evening are alive with children because that is when parents are willing and/or able to come with them.

If playgrounds were designed to attract adults as well as children, the evening only use pattern could be changed. Shaded and sunny comfortable adult seating, any kind of running water, handsome plantings, placement of seating so adults can see passers-by as well as children playing, shelter from wind — all these are important as adult attractors.

Some playgrounds go so far as providing activities both parent and child can do together — for example, raised sand areas which children can be in and parents sit beside to play together, slides big enough for two built into hillsides or berms, scaled down fitness walks with child's activities at each stop, and so forth.

Another way to encourage adult and child use is to put different adult and child activities adjacent to one another. For example, a tot lot next to a tennis court will allow parents and children to see each other while pursuing their own interests.

6. Graded Challenges. As children grow they constantly try new things. From climbing to the lowest tree branch they progressively climb higher to see farther and feel the wind sway them more dangerously and excitingly. They constantly test themselves to find their growing skills.

On the other hand, children are usually good judges of their own limitations. They will stop when they reach a point where they are no longer sure they can go farther; e.g. when the swing feels as if it will go all the way over if they go any higher.

Therefore, in a play area children need the same activity, for example climbing, at various levels of difficulty. A very small child may be delighted at being able to climb three or four 6" steps and slide back down. An eight year old may be frustrated because the rope climb is only 10" high and the child is sure he or she could climb much higher. Providing challenges for children at various levels of

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complexity and difficulty is essential if the child is not to become either overwhelmed or bored.

Further, these activities could be zoned so that an easy balancing beam leads to a balance bar and so on with stop-off places in between, so a child could quit at any point. Also zoning could relate the easiest balancing, swinging and climbing experiences to each other, so that the youngest children would have their own play zone within the larger play area.

OTHER IMPORTANT FACTORS

How much use a play area receives is dependent, not only on play opportunities, but also on important physical factors.

7. Climate Shelter. Shelter also means protection from wind or too much sun. In a northern climate such as Chicago, barriers which provide enclosure can also be used as wind-breaks if sited properly. Wind is the single most important factor in how comfortable children feel outdoors. The wind-chill factor can be reduced substantially with a good windbreak.

Therefore if a play area were sheltered from chilling early spring, late fall and winter winds, sunny days in all but the coldest January weather could be outdoor play times. Parents with small children who experience cabin fever in winter would also welcome the chance to get out if parent seating areas were sheltered and sunny.

Fortunately, the prevailing cold weather WNW winds shift to SSW in summer, so a play area could be planned to cut off the winter winds but admit cooling summer breezes.

Shelter also means protection from too much sun. A sand box in full sun will be deserted on warm days because of excessive heat. Have you ever tried tramping the Lake Michigan dunes in bare feet on a hot sunny day? Your feet probably weren't the only part to get burned.

Deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves in fall) are perfect weather modifiers in northern climates. They provide shade for play areas in summer while allowing the warming sun to shine through during the winter. Because our sun always comes from the south — slightly in summer and much more in winter, deciduous trees should be on the east, south and west of a play area. not on the north. Evergreens should be on the north side, if trees are needed.

It is important to remember that any play area needs a choice of both sun and shade at the same time in summer. The entire play area should never be in shade. On a cool summer day the sun will feel very good.

Some play areas even have provisions for shelter from rain. This is most common around preschools and elementary schools where a porchlike projection from the building can be made large enough for rainy day play. But many parks also have open air pavilions that have play possibilities. Locating these near play areas will not only provide play space on rainy days, but will also offer a place for adults to enjoy while children are playing in good weather.

8. Drainage. Another climate related problem is drainage — how quickly a play area dries out after a rain. From the entry of a play area, surfacing should be graded from fastest drying to slowest. If a play area contains sand, grass, paving and woodchips, the paving should be closest to entry, sand or woodchips next and grass farthest from the entry. That way children can use the quick-drying areas without having to cross a grassy swamp to get to them.

9. Safety. Of course safety is uppermost in parent's minds as well as in the minds of park district boards and insurance company executives. There are dozens of factors which affect how safe a play area will be, but there are some major ones parents can evaluate themselves.

Children, especially younger children, feel much more like exploring and imagining if trusted adults are nearby to protect them.

Surfacing — children will probably always fall no matter what the play equipment is, so what they fall on is very important. Concrete or blacktop, while needed for a trike track or basketball area, should not be under climbing frames, swings, slides. Sand or woodchips, even pea gravel are better alternatives.

Equipment — equipment made from metal is generally more hazardous than wood simply because it is harder. Poor quality wooden equipment, on the other hand, will produce splinters and torn clothes. Equipment with sharp edges or hard corners is dangerous. Equipment which has moving parts that are hard (wooden or metal, even plastic swing seats, for example) is very dangerous.

Circulation — circulation means the movement from one play activity to the next. If. for example, activities are planned so that the slide dumps children into the path of a rope swing, there is danger. The newer wooden equipment is more likely to have circulation problems because so many activities are included in such a small area. These can be done very well, but should be carefully checked. Further, activities which may be enjoyed by infants and toddlers should not be placed between two activities enjoyed by 6-7 year-olds. These children cannot be expected to remember to go around.

The best circulation for safety is circular or looping pathways. This type of circulation reduces uncontrolled running and also allows activities to be beside the path rather than in the path.

Access — if children can enter the playground from any direction rather than at one or two main points there are more likely to be collisions. Access should be limited not only to avoid these, but also to keep older child activities from overrunning the play area. If a ball field is nearby older kids chasing a ball may not be as careful of small children as parents would like. Barriers to limit access will avoid this problem.

CONCLUSION

It is obvious that a playground can be more than simply equipment plunked down in a vacant lot. The good qualities a play area could have are of course more numerous than those listed here. But this list will give parents, school districts and park districts wishing to evaluate children's play areas a start in checking local park playgrounds, school playgrounds and even backyard play areas.

If play areas are lacking a number of these factors, plus other require-

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PLAYGROUND DESIGN

(Cont. from p. 16)

ments parents may have formulated themselves, parents may consider doing what other parents around the country have done. That is, parents and children have organized to build their own playgrounds. Working with a designer, parents and kids help design and plan the play area and then help build it. This process has several advantages for both parents and kids:

—Saves a lot of money at a time when schools and park districts are fiscally strapped. It may mean the difference between getting one piece of equipment and getting a whole revamped play area.

—Allows children to have an "adventure play" experience during the entire process of design and building.

—Allows parents and children to feel it is their park. Research has shown that this reduces vandalism, litter, and reduces upkeep.

—Designers who have worked with neighborhood groups report that followup visits show better than average use of these playgrounds and parks.

In summary, better playgrounds are certainly possible, but everyone involved must first become informed about the possibilities of play and the design features which can make the possibilities real.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Ann Blocher Hill is a former elementary teacher and learning center director who, while receiving a Master of Architecture degree, was part of a team which won a first award from Progressive Architecture for work in children's environments. She is currently a site designer with Thompson Dyke & Associates, Ltd., Northbrook, Illinois.

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